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Try different flours and unique ingredients; did you know you can make delectable bread with apples and raisins, for example? Journal of Archaeological Science Trapeze shaped flint tips as proxy data for occupation during the Late Mesolithic and the Early to Middle Neolithic in the northern part of the Netherlands. An outline of late Swifterbant pottery in the Noordoostpolder province of Flevoland, the Netherlands and the chronological development of the pottery of the Swifterbant culture.

Niekus Abstract: Pit hearth features are omnipresent on the coversand area in the Netherlands and bordering regions, especially the northern part of the Netherlands. Keywords : Mesolithic, pit hearths, spatio-temporal patterning, function, behavioural context. B esides lithics, hearth features represent the most surface hearths are usually associated with fragments of common phenomenon in the Mesolithic of the charred hazelnut shell, lithics both burnt and unburnt Netherlands, as well as adjacent regions within and fragments of bone charred and uncharred.

The the Northwest-European plain fig. In general terms, second category, pit hearths which were dug into the sub- two categories are distinguished: surface hearths, and soil, usually have an infill of charred plant remains char- pit hearths. Depending on the preservation conditions, coal, parenchymous material and sand.

Pit hearths do not form a homogeneous category in pit hearths as natural phenomena for a number of reasons. Although they do occur throughout addressed elsewhere. BC graphical and chronological patterning and behavioural context. We will first outline in more detail the charac- teristics of each of the two hearth categories, in order to define the extent of their differences. Next, we discuss various aspects concerning the pit hearths in particular: T he terminology already points to a distinction between the two hearth categories on the basis of the setting: the one refers to a fire at or near the surface, while the their shape, infill and contents, spatial arrangements other refers to a fire in a dug pit.

Finally we will discuss the potential function of these features, and expand on the behavioural context. Surface hearths Recently, P. Wood served as fuel, and dead and live wood were used Van Rijn and Kooistra, anthracological analysis indicates the use of a restricted Logs and thick branches, of both Various craft activities e. Surface hearths probably func- food consumption in association with these features.

Pit tioned as a direct source of heat and light, and played an hearths might have functioned in the context of food pre- important role in the context of food preparation and con- paration, such as the cooking of plant food or meat. Flint artefacts often burnt can be The archaeological manifestation of these hearths present within the feature, but generally in low quantities. In a few instances, bone fragments fig. Bone remains are, however, not such as at Oirschot Arts and Hoogland, and Rotter- always found; absence of bone can be the result of bad dam-Beverwaard Niekus et al.

There are a few documented bone. Beuker, ; Devriendt, et al. The archaeological manifestation of this category of Pit hearths hearths consists of a U or bowl-shaped feature with almost exclusively rounded base. Although is not always easy to determine; micromorphological ana- lysis has shown that pits may have been wider than sug- gested by macroscopic assessment Exaltus, Charcoal can be present in the form of Fig. The orange-brownish zone results from oxidized iron coatings due to heating.

The white particles just above this zone are fragments of calcined bone and burnt flint. From an archaeological perspect- Often, pit hearths only become visible at this charcoal-rich ive, these possible functions appear difficult to identify.

As mentioned, charred fragments of hazelnut shell are occasionally found in the infill of pit hearths. Based on ethnographic information, it has been Fens, ; Opbroek and Hamburg, In the case suggested that these pits were used in the preparation of of widely diverging results, hazelnut shell fragments turn food Groenendijk, , e. As the dates obtained and seeds acorn , cooking of plant food e. Other suggested functions are the drying of shells in pit hearths are intrusive, and do not relate to the Fig.

A: wide and deep pit hearth with charred logs on the bottom; B: detail of the in situ charred logs; C: pit hearth with a mixture of angular charcoal and sand in the bottom part; D: pit hearth with a cluttered charcoal infill and some admixture with sand in the bottom part.

One would need excel- thesis itself bears an intrinsic problem: the act of roasting lent preservation conditions to find evidence for this. The is meant to prepare a foodstuff for delayed consumption, heating of rocks, however, would have better chances of which requires extraction out of the pit and subsequent leaving archaeological evidence.

However, some occasional finds of pits with large overheating. However, in the case of the Netherlands and amounts of hazelnuts e. Also, the lithic, making this a highly improbable option Peeters, regular occurrence of charred hazelnut shell fragments at Heating of unmodified cobbles to serve as boiling Mesolithic sites demonstrates that this foodstuff was an stones or potboilers is, however, not to be excluded.

Frag- important dietary element in the Mesolithic. Beuker, ; Devriendt, The question remains as to whether or not heating As is the case with the roasting hypothesis, the possib- of such stones required the use of pit hearths. The scarcity ility of pit hearths having functioned as cooking pits for of fragments in the pit hearths themselves indicates that plant food or meat also lacks substantial archaeological thermal shock did not, or only rarely occur in the pits.

Frag- evidence as support. Again, the envisaged result, cooked ments of heat-cracked cobbles are furthermore found at food, will have been removed from the pit. However, one sites where pit hearth features are actually absent. Microscopic analysis of charred vegetative parenchymous remains from pit hearths in Production of tar the northern Netherlands has delivered some evidence for edible plants, notably horsetail Equisetum , rush The use of tar produced from wood pine and bark Scirpus , reed mace Typha and male fern Dryopteris birch in the Mesolithic is evidenced by hafted lithics filix-mas , all of which possess edible roots Perry, , and lithics with tar residue e.

Larsson, ; Bokel- and This shows that tar was pro- and water lily Nymphaea alba have been identified duced in the context of complex i. Of course, we manufacture, and maybe also served medicinal purposes have to consider the possibility that these plants ended Aveling and Heron, ; Baumgartner et al. In view of the mixed association of spe- be frequently present, and were suggested to result from cies from aquatic, marsh and dryland environments, these tar production Jansen and Peeters, The possibility latter hypotheses do not seem very likely.

Bone remains are eral sites such as Hattemerboek Kubiak-Martens et al. However, the interpretation of such geochemical troscopy of samples furthermore provided evidence for data remains notoriously difficult. Niekus of pine wood through distillation pyrolysis , and found of this paper to pit hearth occurrences in the northern that the carbonised tar-like substance was produced from Netherlands. Large-scale and However, we have to consider the possibility of Mesolithic Groenendijk, , which led to the dis- unintended formation of tar under favourable conditions, covery of many sites and the development of a special e.

Another interest in pit hearths Groenendijk, ; Groenendijk possibility is that tar was not the desired product, but and Smit, including ample radiocarbon dates. However, in the absence of any ethnographic As far as we can see from the available data, pit evidence of charcoal production among hunter-gatherers hearths seem to be restricted to the sandy parts of the we do not find this very likely in a Mesolithic context. This observation implies that the Early Holocene landscape was more dynamic at a sub-regional to local scale than has been explored the potential use s of these features, we want to assumed.

Hence, there is a possibility that the Mesolithic address some other aspects. These concern their geogra- use of river dunes, including the digging of pit hearths phical and chronological distribution within the Nether- and other features, started later in some parts of the coun- lands on the one hand, and spatial configurations and try than in others Peeters et al.

In this respect it chronology at the site level on the other. The great majority of pit hearth features in the Nether- On the other hand, this by no means implies that there lands are found north of the Rhine. A rough estimate is were no people active on the dunes in the latter area; on that at present approximately 3, have been recorded the contrary, lithics attest to the presence of Mesolithic from around different sites in the study area.

The hunter-gatherers in this region Peeters et al. Sandy that these structures were not used. It may very well be a Flanders , their occurrence is less frequent here Fries result of taphonomy: the Early Holocene surface of the et al. The ques- loess landscape has suffered severe erosion. In addition, tion posed is whether their overwhelming presence north micromorphological investigations have shown that char- of the Rhine has any cultural significance. Occasional obser- also be strongly underrepresented in radiocarbon dates.

In the coversand region of the southern Nether- patterning lands, isolated pit hearths occur but not in clusters, as is often the case north of the Rhine. Pit hearths occur throughout the Mesolithic in the Neth- It should be stated that this picture of pit hearth distri- erlands. The earliest radiocarbon dates roughly between butions is biased by research traditions, and the specific c. BC fall within the Late Preboreal.

Atlantic the number of dates decreases further, but less This date also corresponds with the Mesolithic- Neolithic dramatically compared to the previous decline. The transition, and the appearance of the earliest Swifterbant pot- second half of the Middle Atlantic shows a new rise in tery in the wetlands of the western half of the Netherlands. When considering each This pattern of fluctuation in the numbers of dates, used date to reflect a single activity event, the frequency of here as a proxy for activity events, has been the subject of events through time reveals a remarkable pattern fig.

Waterbolk Waterbolk, We observe a steady rise in the number of dates in the and suggested that this pattern reflects demo- Boreal c. BC towards the Early Atlantic graphic shifts due to changes in vegetation: the densific- c. BC , followed by an equally rapid ation of forests in the Atlantic led to a decrease of game decrease during the Early Atlantic.

From the second on the higher grounds, which triggered movement of Fig. The dates were calib- rated using the calibration curve IntCal13 Reimer et al. Niekus hunter-gatherer populations towards the lower grounds, in dated pit hearths as well as lithic scatters and surface characterised by more open wetland environments. How- hearths for Early and Middle Mesolithic activity, but there ever, although the dates reflect hunter-gatherer presence, is hardly any evidence for the presence of Late Meso- one cannot equate this presence with population density lithic hunter-gatherers.

The earliest pit hearths date to the Peeters, BC, after which there is a clear decline in the involved: the drop in the number of dates coincides with number of dates. So far there are no pit hearths dated after the 8. BC from the area, but only from the stream , triggered by the catastrophic drainage of Lake valleys along the edges of the Peat Colonies. The same Agassiz Canada. This drainage event is known to have goes for Late Mesolithic flint artefacts.

Hence, spatial and triggered a sea-level jump of 1. More systematic analysis of the data from relative sea-level rise in the order of 2 m a century. In a regional perspective may provide further insight into addition, at about the same time, the Storegga tsunami the interpretation of patterns discussed above. The number of features per site ranges have influenced aspects of hunter-gatherer behaviour in from only one specimen to extensive distributions con- connection to pit hearths, is still an open question.

Lump- sisting of hundreds of pit hearths fig. Well-known ing all radiocarbon dates into a single explanatory frame- examples of these extensive site-complexes are Nieuwe work is without doubt too simplistic. Peeters and Niekus, , and Dronten-N23, and further to the east the German site fig. Sea- of Oldenburg-Eversten Fries et al.

As discussed level rise, climate and differences in sub- regional condi- in more detail elsewhere Niekus, , section 7 and tions will have resulted in variable landscape dynamics, fig. Some sites show a patterns of behaviour at that scale. Even within sites there might exist activity which involves manufacture and use of flint tools a spatio-temporal dimension.

For example, at the site during the Preboreal and Boreal, i. Early and Middle Stadskanaal 1, which is situated on the western part of Mesolithic. The use of pit hearths starts at the Boreal to the same coversand ridge as Nieuwe Pekela 3, pit hearth Early Atlantic boundary and continues to the Middle to dates are on average older than those from Nieuwe Pekela Late Atlantic boundary.

Hence, pit hearths are of Late 3 suggesting a spatial shift in the use of pit hearths. At the Mesolithic age, but hardly any lithics from this period are site Epse differences in temporal patterning between the known from the upper part of the Hunnepe system Herm- northern and southern part of a coversand ridge have also sen et al. The radiocarbon dates show a trend and considerable differences in pit hearth density have where the earlier dates are found in the upper part of the been observed.

Based on a study of excavation-plans in Hunnepe system, and the younger ones in the lower part combination with extensive radiocarbon dating, several of the system Peeters et al. The following con- ated in the province of Groningen, may serve as a second figurations were observed Niekus, and in prep.

From this vast coversand area, which is char- quadrangular and polygonal arrangements, curvi- linear acterised by a rather uniform geomorphology, hundreds configurations, and clusters small and large. Radiocarbon of pit hearths have been excavated over the years and dating suggests that a temporal dimension is present. Some dozens were radiocarbon dated Groenendijk, and types of configurations occur throughout the Mesolithic ; Niekus, Based on typological and technological characteristics, the Mesolithic lithic assemblages indicated by the green frame from this site principally predate the 2C pit hearth phase adapted from Hermsen et al.

Niekus Fig. Black: Mesolithic pit hearths; cross-hatched: Mesolithic grave pits; hatched: Neolithic graves; open: post-Mesolithic features, scale after Verlinde and Newell, Some other observations Mesolithic and the beginning of the Late Mesolithic.

BC by convention Louwe Kooijmans et al. Whilst the LBK arrived several centuries earlier in the south-eastern part of the Netherlands, the T his consideration of pit hearths in the Mesolithic of the Netherlands maybe raises more questions than it answers. Indeed, there are still many unknowns, des- earliest pottery assigned to the Swifterbant Culture pite the fact that these features, of which there are thou- appeared at this time in the western part of the country, sands, have been studied by archaeologists for decades.

This Early Swifterbant pottery is known from functional interpretation of pit hearths. Neither can we valley Louwe Kooijmans, a, b and , and rule out the possibility that the function of pit hearths Hoge Vaart in the Flevoland Polders Peeters, and changes through time. The question of whether there is In connection to the disappearance of pit hearths, any direct relationship between the disappearance of pit the latter site provides some interesting information.

BC, Mesolithic activity at this Neolithic boundary is equally difficult to answer. Non- location a coversand ridge stretching into an extended etheless, it cannot be ruled out, and leaves us room for at back-barrier swamp involved the use of pit hearths.

Due least two hypotheses. Between and cal. BC the site was tempor- shift from the use of pit hearths to the use of pottery con- arily inundated due to increased dynamics in an adjacent nects to a rather abrupt change of cooking tradition.

If this freshwater tidal gully, which led to some erosion. In a second undertook activities in a completely different behavioural scenario, tar production is at the forefront: the shift from context. These people were still hunter-gatherers, but pit the use of pit hearths to the use of pottery connects to a hearths were no longer used; instead we see the use of rather abrupt change of technology.

In this case, it can be surface hearths in association with flint tool manufacture hypothesised that a decrease of primary resources e. In consideration pine wood for tar distillation has led to technological of the narrow range of flint tools trapeze-shaped points; innovation. Such innovation may have invoked other scrapers used for the working of fresh hides; simple ways of tar production, or the replacement of tar for par- blades used for plant processing , it seems likely that ticular purposes with another raw material.

Any of the visits were of relatively short duration. Activities also scenarios, and possibly there are more, connects the use involved the use of T-shaped perforated antler adzes, and of pit hearths and ceramic vessels to a shared objective, on the spot production and subsequent abandonment of notably the transformation of one or more materials into ceramic vessels, among others.

BC when Hence, from such a perspective, pit hearths and ceramics paludification of the sand ridge was complete.

The relatively abrupt change of the Mesolithic and Of course, as always, a word of caution is needed. Neolithic phases of activity at Hoge Vaart came with It is certainly not necessary that pottery is functionally the disappearance of pit hearths, and the appearance of equivalent to pit hearths.

Indeed, we have pointed out that ceramic vessels. Further analysis is needed vessels were of better fabric and possibly produced else- to define this variability in more detail, as to provide a where instead of locally Peeters, The evidence for basis for functional interpretation. And indeed, there is no pottery production on this very location is quite strong: reason to assume that early ceramic vessels all were pro- lumps of knead clay, crushed quartz for tempering, and duced for the same purpose.

In-depth isotopic and lipid imprints of reed mats which probably served as working analysis of crusts attached to pottery sherds will help to floors Peeters, , Vessels fired at low temperat- shed light on this topic compare Raemaekers et al.

Drawing E. Bottom: A curvilinear pit hearth configuration with corresponding 14C dates at Epse. Dessin E. And systematic radiocarbon dating allows ana- ing, as the answers provide important insights into par- lysis of spatial and chronological patterns, at intra-site ticular aspects of hunter-gatherer behaviour.

Detailed level and at the scale of the landscape. Although we have analysis of charred plant remains from pit hearths already built a substantive record for the Netherlands, informs us about potential function, but also about there is still a lot to learn. Geochemical, micromorphological and physicochem- Acknowledgements: We wish to thank K. Edinborough UCL ical analysis also provide information about possible Institute of Archaeology, London for his help with figure 4.

Devriendt eds. Opgraving van cipality of Best, the Netherlands, Helinium, 27, p. Aveling E. Bastiaens J. Bats and M. Schmidt T. Hogestijn and Anthropology, 2, 2, p. Peeters eds. Volksalmanak, , p. Fens R. Arnoldussen, J. Mendelts, R.

Fens and J. Pee- tungspech aus dem Heidmoor im Kreis Segeberg, Offa, 51, ters eds. Vroeg-Holoceen: inzichten uit een diepe put bij Blijdorp Fries J. Waddington ed. Oberlin, J. Daugas voor Chr.

Salles eds. Series , p. Cunningham P. Informationen, 13, p.

 
 

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